tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4623858130396919022024-02-18T20:37:08.205-08:00Medico Reviewmujahid iqbalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16575121499050796742noreply@blogger.comBlogger27125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-462385813039691902.post-63213053410084908312012-09-06T23:32:00.000-07:002012-09-06T23:36:42.863-07:00<b><span style="color: red;">Gametogenesis:</span></b><br />
<ul>
<li>sperms and oocyte,the male and female gametes,are highly specialized sex cells.</li>
<li>the formation of male gametes is called spermatogenesis and formation of female gametes is called oogenesis.</li>
<li>gametes are formed during meiosis in which number of chromosomes are reduced by half.</li>
<li>primordial germ cells originate in the wall of the yolk sac of the embryo and migrate into the gonad region.</li>
</ul>
<div>
<b><span style="color: red;">Meiosis:</span></b></div>
<ul>
<li>it is a special type of cell division that involve two meiotic cell divisions(first meiotic division and second meiotic division),which occurs only during the production of gametes.</li>
<li>it result in the formation of four gametes containing 23 chromosomes and 1N amount of DNA.</li>
<li>it provides constancy of the chromosome number from generation to generation by reducing the chromosome number from diploid to haploid,thereby producing haploid gametes.</li>
<li>Allows random assortment of maternal and paternal chromosomes between the gamtes.</li>
<li>In meiosis crossing over of chromosome segments shuffles the genes and produces a recombination of genetic material.</li>
</ul>
<div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiRtaBsgtASC-4E29glAgahmSiHYGyHiJ0TFQi0VFAsLNen5WQYG5mnQTCpQoKQrjlG8GZK8VBEzI8h9uPYCwy3Vf85Jr-QmO8LxeLdzXilBuwGIQJ4Rocvw82x43ceH7lkKq_KdC7Vjotw/s1600/MEIOSIS1&2.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="" border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiRtaBsgtASC-4E29glAgahmSiHYGyHiJ0TFQi0VFAsLNen5WQYG5mnQTCpQoKQrjlG8GZK8VBEzI8h9uPYCwy3Vf85Jr-QmO8LxeLdzXilBuwGIQJ4Rocvw82x43ceH7lkKq_KdC7Vjotw/s400/MEIOSIS1&2.png" title="MEIOSIS" width="383" /></a></div>
Disturbances of meiosis during gametogenesis.e.g nondisjunction,result in the formation of abnormal gametes.These gamtes can cause abnormal development such as occur in infants with Down syndrome.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
<b><span style="color: red;">Oogenesis:</span></b></div>
<div>
<ul>
<li>Primordial germ cells(46,2N) arrive in the ovary at week four of embryonic development and differentiate into oogonia(46,2N).</li>
<li>Oogonia enter first meiotic division and undergo DNA replication to form primary oocytes(46,4N).</li>
<li>All primary oocytes are formed by the fifth month of fetal life and remain dormant in prophase (diplotene) of meiosis 1 until puberty.</li>
<li>during women ovarian cycle.a primary oocyte complete the meiosis1 to form the secondary oocyte(23,2N) and first polar body which will degenerate.</li>
<li>secondary oocyte enters second meiotic division and ovulation occur when chromosomes align at metaphase.The secondary oocyte remains arrested in metaphase of second meiotic division until fertilization occur.</li>
<li>At fertilization,secondary oocyte completes second meiotic division to form a muture oocyte(23,1N) and second polar body.</li>
</ul>
<div>
<b><span style="color: red;">Spermatogenesis:</span></b></div>
</div>
<div>
<ul>
<li>Primordial germ cells(46,2N) arrive in the indifferent gonad at week four of embryonic development and remain dormant until puberty.</li>
<li>At puberty,
Primordial germ cells differentiate into type A spermatogonia.which serve as stem cell throughout adult life.</li>
<li>some type A spermatogonia differentiate into type B spermatogonia.</li>
<li>Type B spermatogonia enter first meiotic division to form primary spermatocytes.</li>
<li>Primary spermatocytes form two secondary spermatocytes.</li>
<li>Secondary spermatocytes form two spermatids.</li>
<li>Spermatids undergo spermatogenesis,which result in mature sperms.</li>
</ul>
</div>
mujahid iqbalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16575121499050796742noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-462385813039691902.post-56018036596190247752012-09-02T08:10:00.002-07:002012-09-02T08:10:55.304-07:00Retroperitoneal organs are:<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
<div>
<b>SAD PUCKER</b>:</div>
<div>
S - Suprarenal glands (aka the adrenal glands)</div>
<div>
A - Aorta/IVC</div>
<div>
D - Duodenum (second and third segments [some also include the fourth segment] )</div>
<div>
P -Pancreas (tail is intraperitoneal)</div>
<div>
U - Ureters</div>
<div>
C - Colon (only the ascending and descending colons, as transverse and sigmoid retain mesocolon)</div>
<div>
K - Kidneys</div>
<div>
E - Esophagus</div>
<div>
R - Rectum</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
</div>
mujahid iqbalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16575121499050796742noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-462385813039691902.post-39164509951803177882012-08-10T13:34:00.000-07:002012-08-10T13:34:38.242-07:00<b>Synaptic Transmission:</b><div>
<b><br /></b></div>
<div>
Types of Synapses:</div>
<div>
a)One to one synapse-such type of synapses are found in neuromuscular junction where an action potential in presynaptic element produces an action potential in postsynaptic element.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
b)Many to one Synapse-such types of synapses are found on spinal motor neurons where many cell synapses on postsynaptic cell are required to depolarize.The synaptic input may be excitatory or inhibitory.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
Excitatory postsynaptic potentials(EPSPs)</div>
<div>
<ul>
<li>EPSP is produced by depolarization of the postsynaptic cell membrane immediately
under the presynaptic ending.</li>
<li>it is excitatory because membrane potential moves towards its threshold.</li>
<li>produced as a result of increase in conductance to Na+ and Ka+.</li>
<li>Na+ influx causes depolarization.</li>
<li>The EPSPs at synapses between neurons are similar to the
EPSPs at neuromuscular junctions.</li>
<li>Excitatory neurotransmitters include ACh,Norepinephrine,
Epinephrine,Dopamine,Glutamate,and Serotonin.</li>
</ul>
<div>
Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials(IPSPs):</div>
</div>
<div>
<ul>
<li>It hyperpolarizes the postsynaptic cell,moving away from threshold.</li>
<li>Hyperpolarization is caused by opening of Cl- channels.</li>
<li>Inhibitory
neurotransmitters are glycine and GABA.</li>
</ul>
<div>
Summation at synapses:</div>
</div>
<div>
<ul>
<li><b>Spatial Summation</b> occurs when two excitatory inputs arrive at postsynaptic neurons simultaneously and produce greater depolarization</li>
<li><b>Temporal</b>
<b>Summation </b>occurs when
two excitatory inputs arrive at postsynaptic neurons in a rapid succession.because resulting postsynaptic depolarization overlap in time,they add in stepwise fashion.</li>
</ul>
</div>mujahid iqbalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16575121499050796742noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-462385813039691902.post-8760828139370402752012-08-09T10:38:00.001-07:002012-08-09T10:56:49.566-07:00<b>Neuromuscular Transmission</b><br />
<b><br /></b>
Neuromuscular junction is the is the synapse between axons of motorneurons and muscle.<br />
Events occuring during Neuromuscular Transmission.<br />
<ul>
<li>when a action potential is produced in a axon it travels down towards the motor axon terminal.It depolarizes the presynaptic terminal that open Ca2+ channels and
Ca2+ ions moves into the presynaptic terminal down it's electrochemical gradient.</li>
<li>Ca2+ uptake causes release of ACh into the synaptic cleft by exocytosis.</li>
<li>ACh diffuse to the postsynaptic membrane,ACh bind to it's receptors which opens ligand gated Na+ and Ka+ channels and Na+ influx occurs.</li>
<li>Influx of Na+ causes local depolarization.The magnitude of depolarization produced is referred to as End Plate Potential(EPP).EPP is not a action potential,but a local depolarization.</li>
<li>when the end plates depolarizes,local currents causes depolarization and action potential in the adjacent muscle tissue.</li>
<li>ACh is degraded by acetylcholinestrase(AChE ) into acetyl CoA and choline on the muscle end plate.</li>
</ul>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img border="0" height="160" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjQLu7hfw06_JkRRbYJpPJSq3Neco4zHgu02RbanuJ2JxPgO-jBazpoRJKKkg5VzlCKuTf212Knuz9bTFhO6V7_1z0BqHkZL0VQoaLKST8U6QyHSQw-_wnfT6QPudetQT2QVOrywSY3-n9L/s400/neuromuscular+junction.png" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="400" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><br /></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
Agents interfering Neuromuscular junction:</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<ul>
<li><b>Botulinus toxin</b>-it blocks the release of ACh from presynaptic terminal.</li>
<li><b>Curare</b>-it binds with the ACh receptors on motor end plate.</li>
<li><b>Neostigmine</b>-it prevents the ACh degradation by inhibiting the AChE.</li>
<li><b>Hemicholinium</b>-blocks reuptake of choline into presynaptic terminal.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>mujahid iqbalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16575121499050796742noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-462385813039691902.post-6924620170010889442012-07-16T01:21:00.001-07:002012-07-16T03:07:37.778-07:00<span style="font-size: large;"><b>Membrane physiology</b></span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><b><br /></b></span><br />
<ul style="font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px; margin: 0.5em 0px; padding: 0px 2.5em;">
<li style="margin: 0px 0px 0.25em; padding: 0px;"><span class="IL_AD" id="IL_AD6" style="background-attachment: scroll !important; background-color: transparent !important; background-image: none !important; background-position: 0% 50%; background-repeat: repeat repeat !important; border-bottom-color: rgb(0, 153, 0) !important; border-bottom-style: solid !important; border-bottom-width: 1px !important; color: #009900; cursor: pointer !important; display: inline !important; float: none !important; padding: 0px 0px 1px !important; position: static; text-decoration: underline !important;">cell</span> membrane is 8-10nm thick.</li>
<li style="margin: 0px 0px 0.25em; padding: 0px;">it is a lipid bilayer in which protein <span class="IL_AD" id="IL_AD4" style="background-attachment: scroll !important; background-color: transparent !important; background-image: none !important; background-position: 0% 50%; background-repeat: repeat repeat !important; border-bottom-color: rgb(0, 153, 0) !important; border-bottom-style: solid !important; border-bottom-width: 1px !important; color: #009900; cursor: pointer !important; display: inline !important; float: none !important; padding: 0px 0px 1px !important; position: static; text-decoration: underline !important;">molecules</span> are embedded</li>
<li style="margin: 0px 0px 0.25em; padding: 0px;">bilayer of phospholipid molecules that are <b><i>amphipathic</i></b>, i.e. they consist of a polar,<b><i>hydrophilic</i></b> (water-loving) head and a non-polar, <b><i>hydrophobic</i></b> (water-hating) tail.</li>
</ul>
<b style="font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">Components of cell membrane</b><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">1)Lipid component consists of four phopholipids:phosphatidylcholine (lecithin), phosphatidylethanolamine (cephalin),sphingomyelin and phosphatidylserine.cholesterol and glycolipids are also present.</span><br />
<br />
<ul style="font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px; margin: 0.5em 0px; padding: 0px 2.5em;">
<li style="margin: 0px 0px 0.25em; padding: 0px;">lipids that constitute bilayer are amphiphilic because of their hydrophobic (nonpolar) chains directed toward the center of the membrane and their hydrophilic (charged) heads directed outward.</li>
</ul>
<div style="font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px; text-align: center;">
</div>
<ul style="font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px; margin: 0.5em 0px; padding: 0px 2.5em;">
<li style="margin: 0px 0px 0.25em; padding: 0px;">lipid components exhibit asymmetry in which phosphatidylcholine (lecithin) and sphingomyelin are located in outer leaflet; phosphatidylserine and phosphatidylethanolamine (cephalin) are located in inner leaflet.</li>
<li style="margin: 0px 0px 0.25em; padding: 0px;">cholesterol molecules are intercalated among the phospholipids of the membrane with its hydroxyl group at aqueous interface and remainder of the <span class="IL_AD" id="IL_AD1" style="background-attachment: scroll !important; background-color: transparent !important; background-image: none !important; background-position: 0% 50%; background-repeat: repeat repeat !important; border-bottom-color: rgb(0, 153, 0) !important; border-bottom-style: solid !important; border-bottom-width: 1px !important; color: #009900; cursor: pointer !important; display: inline !important; float: none !important; padding: 0px 0px 1px !important; position: static; text-decoration: underline !important;">molecule</span> within the leaflet.</li>
</ul>
<div style="font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">
2)Protein component consists of <span class="IL_AD" id="IL_AD3" style="background-attachment: scroll !important; background-color: transparent !important; background-image: none !important; background-position: 0% 50%; background-repeat: repeat repeat !important; border-bottom-color: rgb(0, 153, 0) !important; border-bottom-style: solid !important; border-bottom-width: 1px !important; color: #009900; cursor: pointer !important; display: inline !important; float: none !important; padding: 0px 0px 1px !important; position: static; text-decoration: underline !important;">integral</span> and peripheral protein</div>
<div style="font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">
<ul style="line-height: 1.4; margin: 0.5em 0px; padding: 0px 2.5em;">
<li style="margin: 0px 0px 0.25em; padding: 0px;"><b style="background-color: white;">peripheral proteins</b><span style="background-color: white;"> exhibit a looser association with membrane surfaces and can be easily disassociated from the lipid bilayer by changes in ionic strength and ph.</span></li>
</ul>
<ul style="line-height: 1.4; margin: 0.5em 0px; padding: 0px 2.5em;">
<li style="margin: 0px 0px 0.25em; padding: 0px;"><b style="background-color: white;">Integral proteins</b><span style="background-color: white;"> are directly incorporated within the lipid bilayer.transmembrane proteins are integral proteinsthat span the lipid bilayer,exposing the protein to both extracellular space and cytoplasm.Many transmembrane proteins are also known as <span class="IL_AD" id="IL_AD11" style="background-attachment: scroll !important; background-color: transparent !important; background-image: none !important; background-position: 0% 50%; background-repeat: repeat repeat !important; border-bottom-color: rgb(0, 153, 0) !important; border-bottom-style: solid !important; border-bottom-width: 1px !important; color: #009900; cursor: pointer !important; display: inline !important; float: none !important; padding: 0px 0px 1px !important; position: static; text-decoration: underline !important;">receptor</span> proteins.</span></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px; text-align: center;">
</div>
<div style="font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">
Receptor Proteins<br />
a)Ion channel linked <span class="IL_AD" id="IL_AD12" style="background-attachment: scroll !important; background-color: transparent !important; background-image: none !important; background-position: 0% 50%; background-repeat: repeat repeat !important; border-bottom-color: rgb(0, 153, 0) !important; border-bottom-style: solid !important; border-bottom-width: 1px !important; color: #009900; cursor: pointer !important; display: inline !important; float: none !important; padding: 0px 0px 1px !important; position: static; text-decoration: underline !important;">receptors</span>:they include voltage gated ion channels,mechanical gated ion channels,and neurotransmitter gated ion channel.<br />
b)G protein linked receptors:theses channels work through cAMP pathway or Calcium ion pathway<br />
c)Enzyme linked receptors.</div>
<div style="font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">
<b>Intercellular Connections:</b></div>
<div style="font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">
<b><br /></b></div>
<div style="font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">
<b>1)Tight junctions:</b></div>
<div>
<ul>
<li><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 18px;">are the attachment between the cell</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 18px;">may be an intrercellular pathway for solutes,depending on the size, charge,and characteristics of the tight junction.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 18px;">may be <b>Tight(</b>impermeable),as in the renal distal tube,or <b>Leaky</b>(permeable), as in the renal proximal tubule and gallbladder.</span></li>
</ul>
<div>
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 18px;"><b>2)Gap junction:</b></span></div>
</div>
<div>
<ul>
<li><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 18px;">are the attachment between the cell that permit the intercellular communication.e.g permit current flow and electrical coupling between myocardial cell.</span></li>
</ul>
</div>mujahid iqbalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16575121499050796742noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-462385813039691902.post-13078552362223423582012-07-11T03:00:00.000-07:002012-07-16T03:09:33.488-07:00<b>Membrane Transport Mechanism</b><br />
<b><br /></b><br />
<br />
<span style="background-color: white;">1)Cross membrane movement of small molecules:</span><br />
<ul>
<li>Diffusion(passive and facilitated)</li>
<li>Active transport</li>
</ul>
<div>
<span style="background-color: white;">2)Cross membrane movement of large molecules:</span></div>
<div>
<ul>
<li>endocytosis </li>
<li>exocytosis</li>
</ul>
<div>
3)Signal transmission across the membrane:</div>
</div>
<div>
<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></div>
<div>
<span style="background-color: white;">cell surface receptors</span></div>
<div>
<ul>
<li>signal transduction</li>
<li>signal internalization </li>
</ul>
<div>
movement of intracellular receptors</div>
</div>
<div>
4)intercellular contact and communication</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
<b>Simple Diffusion:</b></div>
<div>
<ul>
<li>it's a passive movement across the membrane that does not require any metabolic energy</li>
<li>it's not carrier mediated</li>
<li>it occurs down the electrochemical gradient(high conc. to low conc.)</li>
</ul>
<div>
Factors affecting the rate of Diffusion:</div>
</div>
<div>
<div>
1) Its concentration gradient across the membrane.<span style="background-color: white;">Solutes move from high to low concentration.</span></div>
<div>
(2) The electrical potential across the membrane.<span style="background-color: white;">Solutes move toward the solution that has the opposite </span><span style="background-color: white;">charge. The inside of the cell usually has a negative </span><span style="background-color: white;">charge.</span></div>
<div>
(3) The permeability coefficient of the substance <span style="background-color: white;">for the membrane. </span></div>
<div>
<span style="background-color: white;">(4) The hydrostatic pressure </span><span style="background-color: white;">gradient across the membrane. Increased pressure will </span><span style="background-color: white;">increase the rate and force of the collision between the </span><span style="background-color: white;">molecules and the membrane. </span></div>
<div>
<span style="background-color: white;">(5) Temperature. Increased </span><span style="background-color: white;">temperature will increase particle motion and </span><span style="background-color: white;">thus increase the frequency of collisions between external </span><span style="background-color: white;">particles and the membrane. In addition, a multitude</span><span style="background-color: white;">of channels exist in membranes that route the </span><span style="background-color: white;">entry of ions into cells.</span></div>
</div>
<div>
<span style="background-color: white;">(6)Membrane thickness decreases the diffusion thickness.</span></div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
<b>Facilitated diffusion:</b></div>
<div>
<b><br /></b></div>
<div>
<ul>
<li><b><span style="font-weight: normal;">it occurs down the electrochemical gradient(high conc. to low conc.) similar to simple diffusion.</span></b></li>
<li><b><span style="font-weight: normal;">does not require metabolic energy so it is a passive transport.</span></b></li>
<li><b><span style="font-weight: normal;">it's more rapid than simple diffusion</span></b></li>
<li><b><span style="font-weight: normal;">it is a carrier mediated that require a carrier protein to tranport a molecule.</span></b></li>
</ul>
<div>
example:glucose transport in muscle and adipose tissues.</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiLA8CzULe8kONQLt_uDqzHjNpAeHLbcgYMK31LnIZWixqt1d2_ZAgjHFLN1h0vjcsRNnjvRMapOT9n4DcOkXjQ_T3TxhnweANG3KRieFHxlwx1DbwvaghOGGSBYn-Qvw5QMOwlxDWdsX5G/s1600/membrane+transport.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="347" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiLA8CzULe8kONQLt_uDqzHjNpAeHLbcgYMK31LnIZWixqt1d2_ZAgjHFLN1h0vjcsRNnjvRMapOT9n4DcOkXjQ_T3TxhnweANG3KRieFHxlwx1DbwvaghOGGSBYn-Qvw5QMOwlxDWdsX5G/s400/membrane+transport.png" width="400" /></a></div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
<b>Active transport:</b></div>
<div>
It is a kind of transport in which energy is required in the form of ATP.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
a)Primary active transport:when ATP is used directly at the site of transportation then it's called primary active transport.e.g Na+-K+ ATPase and Ca+-ATPase present in endoplasmic reticulum.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
b)Secondary active transport: </div>
<div>
<span style="background-color: white;">The transport of two or more solutes is </span><span class="emph_B" style="background-color: white;">coupled.</span></div>
<div class="P">
One of the solutes (usually
Na<sup>+</sup>) is transported “downhill” and provides energy for the “uphill”
transport of the other solute(s).</div>
<div class="P">
Metabolic energy is not provided
directly, but indirectly from the <span class="emph_B">Na<sup>+</sup>
gradient</span> that is maintained across cell membranes.</div>
<div class="P">
If the solutes move in the same
direction across the cell membrane, it is called <span class="emph_B"><b>cotransport</b></span>, or <span class="emph_B">symport.</span></div>
<ul class="LS listtype_D">
<li class="LM">
<div class="P">
Examples are <span class="emph_B"><b>Na<sup>+</sup>-glucose</b>
cotransport</span> in the small intestine and <span class="emph_B"><b>Na<sup>+</sup>-K<sup>+</sup>-2Cl<sup>-</sup></b></span> cotransport in
the renal thick ascending limb.</div>
</li>
</ul>
<div class="P">
If the solutes move in opposite
directions across the cell membranes, it is called <span class="emph_B"><b>countertransport,</b> exchange</span>, or <span class="emph_B">antiport.</span></div>
<ul class="LS listtype_D">
<li class="LM"><span style="background-color: white;">Examples are </span><span class="emph_B"><b>Na<sup>+</sup>-Ca<sup>2+</sup></b>
exchange</span><span style="background-color: white;"> and</span><b> </b><span class="emph_B"><b>Na<sup>+</sup>-H<sup>+</sup></b>
exchange.</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="P" style="background-color: white;">
<b>Vesicle transport mechanism:</b></div>
<div class="P" style="background-color: white;">
<b>a)Endocytosis:</b>it is the cell intake of extracellular vesicle.it may be</div>
<div class="P" style="background-color: white;">
<ul>
<li>Phagocytosis: it is the process of engulfing by cell.</li>
<li>Pinocytosis:the substances ingested are in solution.it is the drinking if extracellular fluid.</li>
<li>Clathrin-mediated endocytosis: occurs at membrane indentations where the
protein <b>clathrin</b> accumulates.</li>
</ul>
<div>
<b>b)Exocytosis:</b><span style="background-color: white;">Vesicles containing material for export are targeted to the cell membrane.it is usually Ca+ dependent.</span></div>
</div>
<div class="P" style="background-color: white;">
<span class="emph_B"><br /></span></div>
</div>mujahid iqbalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16575121499050796742noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-462385813039691902.post-41978603538216217412012-07-07T09:52:00.003-07:002012-07-07T10:43:20.356-07:00<b style="font-family: Georgia, Utopia, 'Palatino Linotype', Palatino, serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 23px; text-align: left;">Peroxisome Deficiency</b><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Utopia, 'Palatino Linotype', Palatino, serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 23px; text-align: left;">Several genetic diseases are associated with the impairment or absence of peroxisomes.The four most common disorders are:</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Utopia, 'Palatino Linotype', Palatino, serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 23px; text-align: left;"><br /></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Utopia, 'Palatino Linotype', Palatino, serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 23px; text-align: left;"><b>HINZ</b></span><br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Utopia, 'Palatino Linotype', Palatino, serif;"><span style="font-size: 15px; line-height: 23px;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, Utopia, 'Palatino Linotype', Palatino, serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 23px;"><b>H</b>yperpipecolatemia</span></div>
<b style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, Utopia, 'Palatino Linotype', Palatino, serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 23px; text-align: left;">I</b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, Utopia, 'Palatino Linotype', Palatino, serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 23px; text-align: left;">nfantile Refsum disease</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, Utopia, 'Palatino Linotype', Palatino, serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 23px; text-align: left;"><b>N</b>eonatal adrenoleukodystrophy</span><span style="background-color: white;"> </span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, Utopia, 'Palatino Linotype', Palatino, serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 23px; text-align: left;"><b>Z</b>ellweger (cerebrohepatorenal) syndrome</span>mujahid iqbalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16575121499050796742noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-462385813039691902.post-81791442216754323312012-07-07T09:32:00.000-07:002012-07-07T09:32:42.605-07:00<span style="font-size: large;"><b>Cell Membrane:</b></span><br />
<br />
<ul>
<li>cell membrane is 8-10nm thick.</li>
<li>it is a lipid bilayer in which protein molecules are embedded</li>
<li>bilayer of phospholipid molecules that are <b><i>amphipathic</i></b>, i.e. they
consist of a polar, <b><i>hydrophilic</i></b> (water-loving) head and a
non-polar, <b><i>hydrophobic</i></b> (water-hating) tail.</li>
</ul>
<b>Components of cell membrane</b><br />
1)Lipid component consists of four phopholipids:phosphatidylcholine (lecithin), phosphatidylethanolamine (cephalin),sphingomyelin and phosphatidylserine.cholesterol and glycolipids are also present.<br />
<br />
<ul>
<li>lipids that constitute bilayer are amphiphilic because of their hydrophobic (nonpolar) chains directed toward the center of the membrane and
their hydrophilic (charged) heads directed outward.</li>
</ul>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhyofnmD1AvYwmKjZQ6gHppIORwzjbO1g2GNnUrDOvhE0jebRU8dCte49CQrvw61wmG34b0r6d3d_2DM_rODprPrNFLiC6DmivbbvUvO82wJCQOy6Cet-r8CXurGn99a7zENq4xP2BYMTnV/s1600/phopholipid.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhyofnmD1AvYwmKjZQ6gHppIORwzjbO1g2GNnUrDOvhE0jebRU8dCte49CQrvw61wmG34b0r6d3d_2DM_rODprPrNFLiC6DmivbbvUvO82wJCQOy6Cet-r8CXurGn99a7zENq4xP2BYMTnV/s400/phopholipid.png" width="318" /></a></div>
<ul>
<li>lipid components exhibit asymmetry in which
phosphatidylcholine (lecithin) and
sphingomyelin are located in outer leaflet;
phosphatidylserine and
phosphatidylethanolamine (cephalin) are located in inner leaflet.</li>
<li>cholesterol molecules are intercalated among the phospholipids of the membrane with its hydroxyl group at aqueous interface and remainder of the molecule within the leaflet.</li>
</ul>
<div>
2)Protein component consists of integral and peripheral protein</div>
<div>
<ul>
<li><b style="background-color: white;">peripheral proteins</b><span style="background-color: white;"> exhibit a looser association with membrane surfaces and can be easily disassociated from the lipid bilayer by changes in ionic strength and ph.</span></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><b style="background-color: white;">Integral proteins</b><span style="background-color: white;"> are directly incorporated within the lipid bilayer.transmembrane proteins are integral proteinsthat span the lipid bilayer,exposing the protein to both extracellular space and cytoplasm.Many transmembrane proteins are also known as receptor proteins.</span></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
<div>
Receptor Proteins<br />
a)Ion channel linked receptors:they include voltage gated ion channels,mechanical gated ion channels,and neurotransmitter gated ion channel.<br />
b)G protein linked receptors:theses channels work through cAMP pathway or Calcium ion pathway<br />
c)Enzyme linked receptors.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
<br /></div>mujahid iqbalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16575121499050796742noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-462385813039691902.post-24668137435299404602012-07-07T03:30:00.000-07:002012-07-16T03:30:33.848-07:00<span style="color: #333333; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 17px; text-align: left;"> <b>Femoral triangle</b>: arrangement of contents </span><br style="color: #333333; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 17px; text-align: left;" /><br style="color: #333333; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 17px; text-align: left;" /><span style="color: #333333; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 17px; text-align: left;">NAVEL: From lateral hip towards medial navel:</span><br style="color: #333333; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 17px; text-align: left;" /><span class="text_exposed_show" style="color: #333333; display: inline; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 17px; text-align: left;"><br />N- Nerve (directly behind sheath)<br />A-Artery (within sheath)<br />V-Vein (within sheath)<br />E-Empty space (between vein and lymph)<br />L-Lymphatics (with deep inguinal node)</span>mujahid iqbalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16575121499050796742noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-462385813039691902.post-10110519469129577452012-07-06T15:03:00.001-07:002012-07-06T15:03:15.907-07:00<span style="color: #333333; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 17px; text-align: left;">Immunoglobulin concentration in our body!</span><br style="color: #333333; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 17px; text-align: left;" /><span style="color: #333333; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 17px; text-align: left;">GAMDE</span><br style="color: #333333; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 17px; text-align: left;" /><span style="color: #333333; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 17px; text-align: left;">IgG>IgA>IgM>IgD >IgE</span>mujahid iqbalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16575121499050796742noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-462385813039691902.post-28277020329974469192012-07-06T07:34:00.000-07:002012-07-06T07:34:19.026-07:00<span style="color: #333333; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 17px; text-align: left;">Meckel's diverticulum</span><br style="color: #333333; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 17px; text-align: left;" /><br style="color: #333333; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 17px; text-align: left;" /><span class="text_exposed_show" style="color: #333333; display: inline; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 17px; text-align: left;"><br />2 inches long.<br />2 feet from end of ileum.<br />2 times more common in men.<br />2% occurrence in population.<br />2 types of tissues may be present.<br /><br /> Note: "di-" means "two", so diverticulum is the thing with all the twos.</span>mujahid iqbalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16575121499050796742noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-462385813039691902.post-43559541309939685312012-07-03T02:10:00.000-07:002012-07-02T15:19:40.396-07:00BLOOD SUPPLY OF GI<b>Esophagus</b> :<br />
<br />
Arterial supply :<b> </b>1) Inferior thyroid 2) Esophageal branch of Aorta 3)Esophageal branch of left gastric.<br />
<br />
Venous Drainage :1) Brachiocephalic 2)Azygos 3)Left Gastric<br />
<br />
<b>Stomach</b>:<br />
<br />
Arterial Supply : 1)Short gastric 2)Right gastroepiploic 3)left gastroepiploic 4)right gastric & left gastric<br />
<br />
Venous Drainage: 1)Short gastric - to Splenic vein 2)Left gastropiploic vein -to splenic vein 3)Right gastropiploic vein- to superior mesenteric vein 4)Right and Left gastric vein -to portal vein 5)Prepyloric vein.<br />
<br />
<b>Duodenum</b>:<br />
<br />
Arterial Supply: 1)Superior and Inferior Pancreaticoduodenal 2)Right Gastric 3)Right gastroepiploic 4)Supraduodenal<br />
<br />
Venous Drainage:1)Splenic 2)Superior mesenteric 3)Portal vein<br />
<br />
<b>Jeujenum</b> :<br />
<br />
Arterial Supply: 1)Jeujenal and Ileal branch of superior mesentric artery<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjbXXZ1qwX9nWbnRxFr37uvNX8b0O-p1UrtdVTEE6MYPqMZY92QF8TyyVwSg_Zf_18pNV6kUmaIaNTVAuygvdcQwsrME2JDTY3MbjDGcgFODZLHx5k5oheYJkjjWGmKpeH0J_qmh0qcvgsm/s1600/artrial+supply+of+GI.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="333" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjbXXZ1qwX9nWbnRxFr37uvNX8b0O-p1UrtdVTEE6MYPqMZY92QF8TyyVwSg_Zf_18pNV6kUmaIaNTVAuygvdcQwsrME2JDTY3MbjDGcgFODZLHx5k5oheYJkjjWGmKpeH0J_qmh0qcvgsm/s400/artrial+supply+of+GI.png" width="400" /></a></div>
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgA7fooymQTz11bOsyhtCk5xPUMoONU53oD-VBpT5N3E73VTGIQ7djVbCFsaz8aL09OyKjv-OR4vDnIG4-dEpt4_qmWq5LyXpG0A_8P8Hy_ocb0kdooMjfJ2LrCHl5FIht_Glc4TBVfImG1/s1600/Venous+drainage+of+GI.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="301" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgA7fooymQTz11bOsyhtCk5xPUMoONU53oD-VBpT5N3E73VTGIQ7djVbCFsaz8aL09OyKjv-OR4vDnIG4-dEpt4_qmWq5LyXpG0A_8P8Hy_ocb0kdooMjfJ2LrCHl5FIht_Glc4TBVfImG1/s400/Venous+drainage+of+GI.png" width="400" /></a></div>
Venous Drainage:1)Jeujenal and Ileal veins -to superior mesenteric vein<br />
<br />
<b>Cecum</b>:<br />
<br />
Arterial Supply: Cecal branches of Ileocolic<br />
<br />
Venous Drainage: Superior mesenteric vein<br />
<br />
<b>Appendix</b>:<br />
<br />
Arterial Supply: Appendicular branch of inferior divison of Ileocolic artery<br />
<br />
Venous Drainage: 1)Appendicular 2)Ileocolic 3)Superior mesenteric vein<br />
<br />
<b>Large Intestine</b>:<br />
<br />
Arterial Supply: 1)Ileocolic artery 2)Right colic 3)Middle Colic 4)Ascending branch of left colic 5)Descending branch of left colic 6)Sigmoid arteries<br />
<br />
Venous Drainage: 1)Superior mesenteric vein 2)Inferior mesenteric vein<br />
<br />
<b>Rectum</b>:<br />
<br />
Arterial Supply:1)Superior rectal 2)Middle rectal 3)Median Sacral<br />
<br />
Venous Drainage: 1)Superior rectal 2)Middle rectal<br />
<br />
<b>Anal Canal</b>:<br />
<br />
Arterial Supply:1)Above pectinate line- Superior rectal 2)Below pectinate line -Inferior rectal<br />
<br />
Venous Drainage:1)Upper part-Superior rectal 2)Middle part-middle rectal 3)Lower part-Inferior rectal<br />
<br />
<b>Spleen</b>:<br />
<br />
Arterial Supply:Splenic artery<br />
<br />
Venous Drainage:Splenic vein<br />
<br />
<b>Pancreas</b>:<br />
<br />
Arterial Supply:1)Pancreatic branch of splenic artery 2)Superior pancreaticoduodenal 3)Inferior pancreaticoduodenal artery<br />
<br />
Venous Drainage: 1)Portal 2)Splenic 3)Superior mesenteric vein<br />
<br />
<b>Liver</b>:<br />
<br />
Arterial Supply:Hepatic artery<br />
<br />
Venous Drainage:Portal vein<br />
<b><br /></b><br />
<b>Gallbladder</b> :<br />
<br />
Arterial Supply:Cystic artery<br />
<br />
Venous Drainage:Cystic vein<br />
<br />mujahid iqbalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16575121499050796742noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-462385813039691902.post-11873479959049289252012-07-02T09:20:00.000-07:002012-07-02T15:21:23.476-07:00Blood supply of male reproductive system<b>Penis:</b><br />
<br />
Arterial supply:1)deep and dorsal artries of penis.<br />
2)artry to bulb of penis.<br />
3)superficial external pudental artry.<br />
Venous drainage:superficial dorsal vein-drains into external pudental vein.<br />
deep dorsal vein-drains into prostatic venous plexus.<br />
<b>Prostate:</b><br />
Arterial supply:1)inferior vesical 2)medial rectal 3)internal pudendal.<br />
<br />
Venous drainage:prostatic venous plexus-drains into internal illiac vein.<br />
<br />
<b>Scrotum:</b><br />
Arterial supply:1)superior and deep external pudendal artry<br />
2)scrotal branch of internal pudental.<br />
3)cremasteric branch of inferior epigestric.<br />
<br />
Venous drainage:into corresponding veins.<br />
<br />
<b>Testis:</b><br />
Arterial supply: testicular artry.<br />
<br />
venous drainage:pampiniform plexus of veins.<br />
<br />
<b>Ductus deferens:</b><br />
<b><br /></b><br />
Arterial supply: artry of ductus deferens(from superior vesical artry).<br />
<br />
Venous drainage:vesical venous plexus -drains into internal iliac vein.<br />
<br />
<b>Seminal vesical:</b><br />
Arterial supply:1)inferior vesical 2)middle rectal.<br />
<br />
Venous drainage:internal iliac.<br />
<b><br />Epididymis:</b><br />
<br />
Arterial supply:same as testis.<br />
<br />
Venous drainage:same as testis.<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgurc7csSoyWKJKyDKSn4ac1vmk3nEK4GxujcHX6OAZMxT_rBtn4dlw31sj_hjLothBMEyOVYIPYKqfjDjqY63BLcrkZt5EGnpjqGG4fpuvAt37BVLdCOBBepXpUt6wTTQSJSdJxU9X5hOw/s1600/artrial+supply+of+male+reproductive+system.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgurc7csSoyWKJKyDKSn4ac1vmk3nEK4GxujcHX6OAZMxT_rBtn4dlw31sj_hjLothBMEyOVYIPYKqfjDjqY63BLcrkZt5EGnpjqGG4fpuvAt37BVLdCOBBepXpUt6wTTQSJSdJxU9X5hOw/s400/artrial+supply+of+male+reproductive+system.png" width="337" /></a></div>
<br />mujahid iqbalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16575121499050796742noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-462385813039691902.post-46274682466231704362012-07-02T06:19:00.000-07:002012-07-02T15:20:55.656-07:00Blood supply of female reproductive system.<b>Breast:</b><br />
Arterial supply:<span style="text-align: left; text-indent: -0.38in;">branches of the internal thoracic artery.</span><br />
lateral thoracic
and thoracoacromial arteries.<br />
posterior intercostal arteries(<span style="background-color: #fefdfa; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">2</span><span style="background-color: #fefdfa; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px; vertical-align: super;">nd</span><span style="background-color: #fefdfa; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">, 3</span><span style="background-color: #fefdfa; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px; vertical-align: super;">rd</span><span style="background-color: #fefdfa; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;"> and 4</span><span style="background-color: #fefdfa; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px; vertical-align: super;">th</span><span style="background-color: #fefdfa; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;"> ICS).</span><br />
<br />
Venous drainage: <span style="text-align: left; text-indent: -0.38in;">Mainly </span><span style="text-align: left; text-indent: -0.38in;">axillary</span><span style="text-align: left; text-indent: -0.38in;"> vein.</span><br />
<span style="text-align: left; text-indent: -0.38in;"> </span>Some may drain to internal thoracic vein.<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhWokiM6jOhf9tyKCHWp7TDlCBm7PaU5mnViWtByK58IuYtMI6grnfo9IQLOJo6SC3ISqgc0kJVOlEOidfObLPqoIBwHaRytELx5P_1P1aFq2tpXP5z3KAEG7T3VwUsnJTlFmV4IgED5KUz/s1600/artrial+and+venous+supply+of+breast.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="377" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhWokiM6jOhf9tyKCHWp7TDlCBm7PaU5mnViWtByK58IuYtMI6grnfo9IQLOJo6SC3ISqgc0kJVOlEOidfObLPqoIBwHaRytELx5P_1P1aFq2tpXP5z3KAEG7T3VwUsnJTlFmV4IgED5KUz/s400/artrial+and+venous+supply+of+breast.png" width="400" /></a></div>
<br />
<b>Ovary:</b><br />
Arterial supply:1)ovarian artry 2)uterine artry.<br />
<br />
Venous drainage: pampiniform venous plexus.on the right side drain into IVC.In the left side drains into left renal vein.<br />
<br />
<b>Uterus:</b><br />
Arterial supply:1)uterine artry 2)ovarian<br />
Venous drainage:veins form a plexus which drain through uterine,ovarian and vaginal veins into internal iliac veins.<br />
<br />
<b>Uterine tube:</b><br />
<br />
Arterial supply:medial 2/3-uterine artry.lat.1/3 ovarian artry.<br />
<br />
Venous drainage:pampiniform plexus of ovary.<br />
<br />
<b>Vagina:</b>Arterial supply:1)vaginal artry 2)uterine artry 3)internal pudendal artry 4)middle rectal artry.<br />
<br />
Venous drainage:Venous plexus.vaginal venous plexus which drains into internal iliac veins through vaginal veins.<br />
<br />mujahid iqbalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16575121499050796742noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-462385813039691902.post-57147502985576740202012-07-02T04:33:00.000-07:002012-07-02T15:20:22.340-07:00Blood supply of Urinary system<b>Suprarenal Gland</b>:<br />
<br />
Artrial supply:1)superior suprarenal 2)middle suprarenal 3)inferior suprarenal<br />
<br />
Venous drainage:suprarenal<br />
<br />
<b>Kidney:</b><br />
<br />
Artrial supply: renal artry<br />
<br />
Venous drainage: renal vain<br />
<br />
<b>Ureter</b>:<br />
<br />
Arterial Supply:<br />
<br />
Upper part:Renal artery(may also receive branches from gonadal or colic artery)<br />
Middle part: Abdominal aorta (may also receive branches from gonadal or illiac artery)<br />
Lower part:Vesical,Middle rectal or Uterine(in female)<br />
<br />
Venous Drainage :<br />
<br />
Upper part:Renal vein (may also receive branches from gonadal or colic vein)<br />
Middle part: Abdominal aorta (may also receive branches from gonadal or illiac vein)
<br />
Lower part:Vesical,Middle rectal or Uterine(in female)
<br />
<br />
<b>Urinary Bladder</b> :<br />
<br />
Arterial Supply:1)Superior and Inferior Vesical (mainly) 2)Obturator,Inf.Gluteal 3)Uterine,Vaginal(in female)<br />
<br />
Venous Drainage:Vesical venous plexuses drains into internal iliac veins.<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhLuS1kiNeaQFZUmjHU3xt4h1mLIxZKDyJIdhUPnylmEPyIT-IBTso77dTkOnjiAdmbc0fGtBwpXLUD11AsdL9YlirWw5SegBeOpldhbW8XB23tdnDSuOwpKCn5nX4w0s7biNKT2gbhCQMC/s1600/artrial+supply+of+urinary+system.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhLuS1kiNeaQFZUmjHU3xt4h1mLIxZKDyJIdhUPnylmEPyIT-IBTso77dTkOnjiAdmbc0fGtBwpXLUD11AsdL9YlirWw5SegBeOpldhbW8XB23tdnDSuOwpKCn5nX4w0s7biNKT2gbhCQMC/s320/artrial+supply+of+urinary+system.png" width="284" /></a></div>
<br />
<br />mujahid iqbalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16575121499050796742noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-462385813039691902.post-78140221680998506872012-07-01T14:25:00.000-07:002012-08-05T14:31:02.359-07:00<span style="font-size: large;"><b>Membrane Potentials</b></span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><br />
<b>Diffusion and equilibrium potentials:</b><br />
<br />
<ul>
<li><b>diffusion potential </b>is the potential difference generated across the membrane due to concentration difference of a ion that is permeable to the membrane.</li>
<li>amount of diffusing potential depends upon the amount of concentration gradient across the membrane.</li>
<li>the charge of diffusion potential depends upon the charge on the ions that are diffusing.</li>
<li><b>equilibrium potential </b>is the potential when the equilibrium is achieved across the membrane so no more ion diffusion occurs.</li>
</ul>
<div>
<b>Resting membrane potential:</b><br />
<br />
<ul>
<li>it is the potential difference across the membrane at rest.That is negative inside than outside.</li>
<li>it is established by diffusion potential.</li>
<li>this potential difference is mainly produced by the ions that are more permeable to the membrane.</li>
<li>for example k+ ions are more permeable than Na+ ions at rest.so resting membrane potential of a nerve membrane is -70mV that is near to the K+ ions equilibrium potential of -85 mV.</li>
<li>So the resting membrane potential is very sensitive to the extracellular K+ ion concentration.</li>
<li>Increased extracellular K+ concentration will reduce the efflux of K+ ions causing depolarization.</li>
<li>decreased extracellular K+ concentration will accelerate the efflux of K+ ions causing hyperpolarization.</li>
</ul>
<div>
<b>Action Potential:</b><br />
<br />
<ul>
<li>it is the electrochemical fluctuation in the membrane of excitable cell and which rapidly propagate.</li>
</ul>
<div>
Phases of Action potential:</div>
<div>
<ol>
<li><b>Depolarization:</b>conduction of a signal across the membrane is done by a rapid membrane depolarization that changes the normal resting negative potential to a positive membrane potential.It depolarizes the membrane toward the threshold.Depolarization causes rapid opening of the activation gates of the Na+ channel.The Na+ is driven toward the Na+ equilibrium potential of +65mV.</li>
<li><b>Repolarization of action potential</b>:depolarization closes the Inactivation gates of the Na+ channel that results in closure of Na+ channels and Na+ conductance stops.depolarization slowly opens K+ channels and increases K+ conductance.</li>
</ol>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg-VVFukNd0cmAz8yPPWCpoJMgfg7P_GhOS_tSj22jgaAtwKPUqE-HvAVrgkOwWE5R5AK_In2Y7TOzI3WzLGE7aG7oJ197u1GtDBS6rNeNB51YHxzbxCAIkhU6Xrz40EGGXqVEzp-sYRyR9/s1600/action+potential.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg-VVFukNd0cmAz8yPPWCpoJMgfg7P_GhOS_tSj22jgaAtwKPUqE-HvAVrgkOwWE5R5AK_In2Y7TOzI3WzLGE7aG7oJ197u1GtDBS6rNeNB51YHxzbxCAIkhU6Xrz40EGGXqVEzp-sYRyR9/s400/action+potential.png" width="342" /></a></div>
<b><span style="font-weight: normal;">Refractory periods:</span></b><br />
<ul>
<li><b>Absolute refractory period:</b>during this period no matter how how strong the stimulus,it can not induce second action potential.This is due to voltage inactivation of Na+ channels.</li>
<li><b>Relative refractive period:</b>during this period a greater than normal stimulus is required to induce a second action potential</li>
<li><b>Accommodation:</b>it occurs when the cell membrane is held at depolarized level such that the threshold potential is passed without firing an action potential e.g in hyperkalemia.</li>
</ul>
<div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjTUdz0THJ77K3jp682Fid0QzldFF5_dMWhhsTlGYtu-jsnp85wguzJT6FpUfzX2dHwZSwLjUr-pmWSCRDku1MH0qL5SuxeIdJe6bMOEXQcXT3n-wB7YcC4WIgbiiN3qjSPB-WPcBno0ZYN/s1600/action+potential+(2).png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="292" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjTUdz0THJ77K3jp682Fid0QzldFF5_dMWhhsTlGYtu-jsnp85wguzJT6FpUfzX2dHwZSwLjUr-pmWSCRDku1MH0qL5SuxeIdJe6bMOEXQcXT3n-wB7YcC4WIgbiiN3qjSPB-WPcBno0ZYN/s400/action+potential+(2).png" width="400" /></a></div>
Propagation of action potentials:there are some factor that can affect conduction velocity.Most important factors are:</div>
<div>
<ul>
<li>size of an action potential</li>
<li>cell diameter</li>
<li>myelination</li>
<li>demyelination</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
<br /></div>mujahid iqbalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16575121499050796742noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-462385813039691902.post-13636730549893402172012-07-01T03:23:00.000-07:002012-07-16T03:23:37.496-07:00<b>Spleen</b><br />
<span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 17px; text-align: left;">dimensions, weight, surface anatomy.</span><br />
<br style="color: #333333; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 17px; text-align: left;" /><span style="color: #333333; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 17px; text-align: left;">"1,3,5,7,9,11":</span><br style="color: #333333; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 17px; text-align: left;" /><span class="text_exposed_show" style="color: #333333; display: inline; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 17px; text-align: left;"><br />Spleen dimensions are 1 inch x 3 inches x 5 inches.<br />Weight is 7 ounces.<br />It underlies ribs 9 through 11.</span>mujahid iqbalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16575121499050796742noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-462385813039691902.post-8491338577910914152012-07-01T02:38:00.001-07:002012-07-01T02:38:32.189-07:00<span style="font-size: large;">Blood supply of CNS</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><br />
<b>Cerebrum:</b><br />
Arterial supply:1)anterior cereblar.2)middle <span style="background-color: white;">cereblar.3)inferior </span><span style="background-color: white;">cereblar.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;">Venous drainage:1)external </span><span style="background-color: white;">cereblar.2)internal cereblar.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"><b>Corpus callosum:</b></span><br />
Arterial supply:1)anterior cerebral.<br />
<br />
Venous drainage:1)<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Myriad, 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px;">callosal veins 2) callosocingulate veins.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Myriad, 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px;"><br /></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Myriad, 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px;"><b>Internal capsule:</b></span></span><br />
Arterial supply:1)anterior cereblar.2)middle <span style="background-color: white;">cereblar.3)inferior </span><span style="background-color: white;">cereblar.</span>
<br />
<br />
<b>Mid brain:</b><br />
Arterial supply:posterior cerebral.<br />
<br />
<b>Pons:</b><br />
Arterial supply:pontine branch of basilar artery.<br />
<br />
<b>Medulla:</b><br />
Arterial supply:1)medullary branches of vertebral artery2)posterior inferior cerebellar.<br />
<br />
<b>Cerebellum:</b><br />
Arterial supply:1)posterior <span style="background-color: white;">cerebellar2)anterior inferior </span><span style="background-color: white;">cerebellar3)posterior inferior </span><span style="background-color: white;">cerebellar.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"><b>Thalamus:</b></span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;">Arterial supply:1)mainly posteriomedial and posterolateral branches of posterior cerebral.2)partly anteromedial central branches.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span><br />
<b>Spinal cord:</b><br />
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Myriad, 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px;">Arterial supply:1)anterior spinal 2)posterior spinal3)spinal branches of vertebral,deep cervical,posterior intercostal and lumber arteries.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Myriad, 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px;"><br /></span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Myriad, 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px;">Venous drainage:veins forms six plexuses which join internal vertebral venous plexus.</span>mujahid iqbalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16575121499050796742noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-462385813039691902.post-10069439781837205582012-07-01T01:40:00.000-07:002012-07-01T01:40:21.971-07:00<span style="font-size: large;">Blood supply of Head and Neck</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><br />
<b>Scalp</b>:<br />Arterial supply:1)supratrocheal,supraorbital,superficial temporal, 2)posterior auricular,occipital.<br />
<br />
Venous drainage:<span style="background-color: white;">1)supratrocheal,supraorbital,2)superficial temporal, posterior auricular,occipital.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"><b>Face:</b></span><br />
Arterial supply: 1)facial, transverse facial2)arteries that accompany cutaneous,nerve.<br />
<br />
Venous <span style="background-color: white;">drainage:1)common facial 2)retromandibular.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"><b>Tongue:</b></span><br />
Arterial supply:1)lingual(mainly),2)root-by tonsilar, ascending palatine and ascending pharyngeal.<br />
<br />
Venous <span style="background-color: white;">drainage:1)deep lingual vein-drains either into common facial vein or into IJV.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span><br />
<b>Pharynx:</b><br />
<span style="background-color: white;">Arterial supply:1)</span><span style="background-color: white;">ascending pharyngeal,2)</span><span style="background-color: white;">ascending palatine and tonsilar,3)greater platine,pharyngeal,4)artery of pterygoid canal,4)dorsal lingual artery.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span><br />
Venous drainage:1)IJV,2)facial vein.<br />
<br />
<b>Middle Ear:</b><br />
Arterial supply:1)mainly-anterior and posterior tympanic,2)small arteries are superior and inferior tympanic artery,tympanic branch of artery of pterygoid canal,caroticotympanic artery and petrosal artery.<br />
<br />
Venous drainage:1)superior petrosal sinus2)ptergoid plexus of veins.<br />
<br />
<b>Auditory tube:</b><br />
Arterial supply:1)ascending pharyngeal 2)middle meningeal 3)artey of pterygoid canal<br />
<br />
Venous drainage:1)pharyngeal vein 2)<span style="background-color: white;">ptergoid plexus of veins.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"><b>Tympanic membrane:</b></span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;">Arterial supply:1)outer surface-deep auricular branch of maxillary artery.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"> 2)inner surface-anterior and posterior tympanic arteries.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;">Venous drainage:1)from outer surface-into EJV</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"> 2)frominner surface-into transverse sinus and venous plexus around auditory tube.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"><b>Nasal septum:</b></span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;">Arterial supply:1)anterior ethmoidal,superior labial,2)sphenopalatine.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;">Venous drainage:veins form a plexus which drains into facial vein and through sphenopalatine vein into ptergoid venous plexus.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"><b>Lateral wall of nose:</b></span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;">Arterial supply:1)</span><span style="background-color: white;">anterior and posterior ethmoidal,facial,2)</span><span style="background-color: white;">greater platine,</span><span style="background-color: white;">sphenopalatine.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;">Venous drainage:</span><span style="background-color: white;">:veins form a plexus which drains into facial vein</span><span style="background-color: white;"> pharyngeal plexus and </span><span style="background-color: white;">ptergoid venous plexus.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"><b>Soft palate:</b></span><br />
Arterial supply:1)greater palatine2)ascending palatine3)palatine branch of ascending pharyngeal.<br />
<br />
Venous drainage:1)<span style="background-color: white;">ptergoid venous plexus2)tonsilar venous plexus.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"><b>Hard palatine:</b></span><br />
Arterial supply:palatine branch of maxillary<br />
<br />
Venous plexus:ptergoid venous plexus.<br />
<br />
<b>Submandibualr gland:</b><br />
Arterial supply:facil<br />
<br />
venous drainage:facial<br />
<br />
<b>Sublingual gland:</b><br />
Arterial supply:lingual<br />
<br />
Venous drainage:lingual.<br />
<br />
<b>Thyroid gland:</b><br />
Arterial supply:superior thyroid 2)inferior thyroid 3)arteria thyroidea ima.<br />
<br />
Venous drainage:1)superior <span style="background-color: white;">thyroid 2)middle </span><span style="background-color: white;">thyroid3)inferior </span><span style="background-color: white;">thyroid.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"><b>Parathyroid gland:</b></span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;">Arterial supply:1)inferior </span><span style="background-color: white;">thyroid2)anastomosis between superior and inferior thyroid arteries.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;">Venous drainage:</span><span style="background-color: white;">1)superior </span><span style="background-color: white;">thyroid 2)middle </span><span style="background-color: white;">thyroid3)inferior </span><span style="background-color: white;">thyroid.</span>mujahid iqbalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16575121499050796742noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-462385813039691902.post-39488220939144528752012-06-28T01:15:00.000-07:002012-06-28T01:43:56.325-07:00<span style="font-size: large;"> </span><b style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-size: large;">Blood vasculature</span></b><br />
<br />
Arteries:<br />
<br />
<ul>
<li><span style="background-color: white;">blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart.</span></li>
<li><span style="background-color: white;">it carries oxygenated blood except pulmonary and umbilical artery.</span></li>
<li><span style="background-color: white;">arteries are thick walled having elastic tissues and smooth muscle.</span></li>
<li><span style="background-color: white;">are under the high pressure.</span></li>
<li>have three layers<br /><span style="background-color: white;">(1) the tunica intima, (2) the tunica </span><span style="background-color: white;">media, (3) and the tunica adventitia, or tunica externa.<br /><br /><span style="background-color: white;">1)</span><span style="background-color: white;">tunica intima composed of </span><span style="background-color: white;">Lamina propria</span><span style="background-color: white;">(smooth muscle and</span><span style="background-color: white;">connective tissue) </span><span style="background-color: white;">Basement </span><span style="background-color: white;">membrane and </span><span style="background-color: white;">Endothelium.<br />2)</span></span><span style="background-color: white;">tunica </span><span style="background-color: white;">media composed of e</span><span style="background-color: white;">xternal </span><span style="background-color: white;">elastic membrane and </span><span style="background-color: white;">smooth muscle.<br />3)</span>tunica adventitia is composed of connective tissues aroud the blood vessels.</li>
</ul>
<div>
Arterioles:</div>
<div>
<ul>
<li>transport blood from small arteries to <span style="background-color: white;">capillaries.</span></li>
<li><span style="background-color: white;">are the smallest arteries in which the three tunics </span><span style="background-color: white;">can be identified.</span></li>
<li><span style="background-color: white;">are the site of high resistance in the CVS that is regulated by </span><span style="background-color: white;">autonomic nervous system (ANS).</span></li>
</ul>
<div>
Capillaries:<br />
<ul>
<li>composed of single layer of endothelial cells <span style="background-color: white;">surrounded by basal lamina.</span></li>
<li>smallest blood vessels by diameter.</li>
<li>site of exchanges of cvs.</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
<div>
Venules:<br />
<ul>
<li class="LM"><span style="background-color: white;">are formed from merged capillaries.</span><div class="P">
</div>
</li>
<li class="LM"><span style="background-color: white;">have the same structure with capillaries except for their diameter.</span></li>
</ul>
<div>
Veins:</div>
</div>
<div>
<ul>
<li>blood vessels that carry blood to the heart.</li>
<li>usually have deoxygenated blood exception are pulmonary vein and umbilical vein.</li>
<li>veins are thin walled and are under low pressure.</li>
<li>they are major blood reservoir of systemic blood(about 70%).</li>
<li>a small change in pressure can cause a large volume change in venous blood.</li>
<li>veins contain valves that allow <span style="background-color: white;">blood to flow toward the heart but not in the opposite direction.</span></li>
</ul>
Vesa Vasorum:<br />
<ul>
<li><span style="background-color: white;">bloos supply to walls of large blood vessels is provided by way of small </span><span style="background-color: white;">blood vessels called vasa vasorum</span></li>
<li><span style="background-color: white;">penetrate </span><span style="background-color: white;">from the exterior of the vessel to form a capillary network in </span><span style="background-color: white;">the tunica adventitia and the tunica media.</span></li>
<li><span style="background-color: white;">supply the large blood vessels.</span></li>
</ul>
</div>mujahid iqbalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16575121499050796742noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-462385813039691902.post-29695710337483365522012-06-24T04:13:00.000-07:002012-07-27T04:15:06.434-07:00<b>Splinter hemorrhag</b>e can be associated with<br />
<br />
<b>TRIP SAM</b><br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
T<span style="color: #333333; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 14px;">rauma</span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif; line-height: 14px;">Rheumatoid arthritis</span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 14px;">Infective endocarditis</span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 14px;">PAN</span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 14px;">SLE</span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 14px;">Anaemia</span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 14px;">Malignancy(haematological)</span></span></div>mujahid iqbalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16575121499050796742noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-462385813039691902.post-46463997032442122222012-05-30T01:13:00.000-07:002012-06-28T10:23:56.997-07:00<b>Branches of external carotid:</b><br />
<br />
Sam and Lilly find old positions more stimulating.<br />
<br />
superior thyroid artery<br />
ascending phryngial artery<br />
lingual artery<br />
facil artery<br />
occipital artery<br />
posterior auricular artery<br />
maxillary artery<br />
superficial temporal arterymujahid iqbalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16575121499050796742noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-462385813039691902.post-24794565540159230672012-05-29T02:56:00.000-07:002012-05-29T02:56:18.532-07:00<b>Mnemonic for Gram+ bateria:</b><br />
<b><br /></b><br />
Strange ! Staphy's Act List Entered My New Carry Bag.<br /><br />Strange--- streptococcus<br />Staphy--- staphylococcus<br />Act--- actinomyces<br />List--- listeria<br />Entered-- enterococcus<br />My--- mycobacteris<br />
New--- pneumococcus<br />Carry--- corynebacteria<br />Bag--- bacillus.mujahid iqbalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16575121499050796742noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-462385813039691902.post-40566125436679843492012-05-26T13:18:00.000-07:002012-07-02T12:26:19.418-07:00Cytology<span style="font-size: large;"><b>Nucleus:</b></span><br />
<b>></b>site of DNA replication and transcription of DNA.<br />
>contains all of the enzymes required for replication,repair for DNA,transcription and processing of precursor RNA molecules.<br />
<div>
>enclosed by NUCLEAR ENVELOP and contains NUCLEAR LAMINA,NUCLEOLUS and CHROMATIN.<br />
<br />
<b>Nuclear Envelop</b>:<br />
>double membrane containing pores(90nm.<br />
>outer membrane is continuous with endoplasmic reticulum.<br />
<b><br /></b><br />
<b>Nuclear Lamina:</b><br />
>lattice network of proteins lamins.<br />
>lamins attach chromatin to inner membrane of nuclear envelop.<br />
>lamins attach chromatin to inner membrane of nuclear envelop.<br />
>participate in breakdown and reformation of nuclear envelop during cell cycle.<br />
>phosphorylation of the lamin during prophase of mitosis initiates nuclear disassembly into small vesicles.<br />
<b><br /></b><br />
<b>Nucleolus</b><b>:</b><br />
>responsible for rRNA synthesis and ribosome assembly.<br />
>has three zones:<br />
Granular zone-found at periphery,contains ribosomal precursor particles.<br />
Fibrillar zone-centrally located.contains ribonuclear protein fibrils.<br />
Fibrillar center-contains DNA that is not transcribed.<br />
<br />
<b>Chromatin:</b><br />
>complex of histones proteins,DNA,nonhistone proteins.<br />
Forms of chromatin;<br />
1)Heterochromatin:highly condensed and transcriptionally inactive.in a typical eukaryotic cell ~10% of the chromatin is heterochromatin.e.g barr body.<br />
2)Euchromatin:extended form of DNA and transcriptionlly active.in atypical cell ~90% of total chromatin.</div>mujahid iqbalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16575121499050796742noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-462385813039691902.post-56613296340830837172012-05-26T10:41:00.000-07:002012-05-26T10:41:31.377-07:00<b>Diastolic murmer</b>: AIMS<br />AI-Aortic incompetence<br />MS-Mitral stenosis.<br /><b><br /></b>mujahid iqbalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16575121499050796742noreply@blogger.com0